The USGS established four key ‘standard’ requirements for VALS, which were to “(1) accommodate various sizes, styles, and duration of volcanic activity; (2) work equally well during escalating and de-escalating activity; (3) be equally useful to both those on the ground and those aviation; and (4) retain and improve effective existing alert notification protocol” (Gardner and Guffanti 2006, p. 1). Notably, three of these requirements are directly concerned not with scientific information as such but rather with function—the effectiveness and usability of the VALS as a communication tool. Ongoing standardisation processes were driven by a combination of factors: internationally by the adoption of the internationally used ICAO aviation colour code; nationally by the social context of the post-9/11 USA, which shaped the broader emergency management policy; at state level by the requirement to have consistent VALS and alert level terminology to prevent confusion; and internally within the USGS, to provide a more consistent and clear message. These standardisation processes are discussed in more depth in Fearnley et al. ( 2012). The cream, marble look Volcano Light by Compac can be supplied in a ‘polished’ texture. This means ascintillating gloss that beautifully reflects the light and highlights the true colours & pigments embedded within the product. The polished texture is one of the most popular surface finishes, mostly present among quartz worktops and granite worktops, although ceramic suppliers also adopt this finish for their stone slabs. These surfaces are easy to clean and prevent all liquid absorption. About Compac Basically, after the action in 2004, I said I thought that it was dangerous actually; that they got state emergency managers and people like ‘x’ just sitting around deciding what the words [for the information statement] are going to say, and I said ‘you know we need to call ‘y’, and let them know. I don’t care what it [information statement] says we just need to know that something has changed’. To be sitting worrying about what the three sentences are is silly. […] There is this tension between wanting to have everything be just right and needing to get the word out (CVO user—USFS). Creech H, Willard T (2001) Strategic intentions: managing knowledge networks for sustainable development. IISD, Winnipeg

Various indicators of volcanic unrest can also be used in predicting eruptions. Earthquake activity around a volcano can provide valuable information. An eruption can be preceded by hundreds of small earthquakes know as earthquake swarms. Earthquakes also can indicate that magma is moving beneath a volcano. However, eruptions can occur with no perceivable change in seismic activity. Matte’ finish of the cream, marble look Volcano Light by Compac is defined by the rough-to-touch texture. Our matte products are deprived of the glossy reflection, the customary quality of most granite worktops and quartz worktops. Instead, they are characterised by acoarse, unpolished layer, more representative of natural stone surfaces. Thanks to their unique ‘organic’ texture, matte surfaces are made for those who appreciate the unrefined, cool feeling of stone.

Fearnley C, McGuire W, Davies G, Twigg J (2012) Standardisation of the USGS volcano alert level system (VALS): analysis and ramifications. Bull Volcanol 74:2023–2036 De la Cruz-Reyna S, Tilling RI (2008) Scientific and public responses to the ongoing volcanic crisis at Popocatépetl volcano, Mexico: importance of an effective hazards-warning system. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 170:121–134 Funtowicz SO, Ravetz JR (1994) Uncertainty, complexity and post-normal science. Environ Toxicol Chem 13(12):1881–1885

Fujimura JH (1987) Constructing ‘do-able’ problems in cancer research: articulating alignment. Soc Stud Sci 17(2):257–293 Drimie S, Quinlan T (2011) Playing the role of a ‘boundary organisation’: getting smarter with networking. Health Res Policy Systems 9(1):S11Despite these variances, the possibility of developing a globally standardised VALS for ground hazards has been considered. After exploring this possibility at volcano conferences in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Scott ( 2007) concluded that there cannot be international uniformity in VALS due to the wide range in volcanic eruptions and hazards, and the recurrence of activity that requires a wide variety of needs to be catered for. Scott questioned the standardisation process, asking if it actually “undermines the important function they achieve” (Scott 2007, p. 90). Cash et al. ( 2003) drew from more than 30 case studies to confirm that the use of institutions or procedures that span this interface between scientific and decision-making communities have been necessary to establish the usability and potential influence of scientific knowledge. The effective use, value and deployment of information across this interface depend on three interlinked criteria: the scientific credibility of the information, its relevance to the needs of stakeholders and the legitimacy of both information and the processes that produced it. Translation of scientific concepts and terminology into accessible everyday language is required to ensure that everyone involved understands why and how information is scientifically credible (Cash et al. 2003). Multi-valent communication among all involved is required to ensure that all involved, including scientific communities, fully understand relevance to stakeholder needs. The legitimacy of the information relies on the perception that the interests and influences of all those involved, including both scientific and end user groups, are included and balanced; legitimacy relies on transparency, and is enhanced by mediation arrangements. In summary, VALS differ greatly between countries, with some including only descriptions of the level of physical phenomena (e.g. differing criteria of volcanic unrest and size of eruption), whilst others include hazards, potential impacts and risk mitigation actions (including evacuations). Some include forecasting, whilst others do not. Designing new VALS and evaluating or revising existing systems requires an understanding of these options. These processes benefit from being able to draw upon the experiences of others in similar situations, and the related theory of risk (and crisis) communication. With increasing levels of technology and communications methods (such as social networking), it is imperative that VALS used by volcano observatories around the world retain their credibility and trust, and work to serve legal, political and local community requirements. This requires further investigation in understanding how uncertainties are conveyed and represented within the VALS and how these are perceived by key decision makers, as discussed by Fearnley ( 2013) and Fearnley et al. ( 2017). It is also important to note that the original intent of VALS may vary in different countries and that intent is very different from the reality of the task, resulting in VALS evolving in different ways over the years, in part to deal with changing technologies, growing and more complex societies and differing legal and institutional remits and protocols.

Scott B (2007) Volcano alert systems: is there a generic one? In: Citites on volcanoes 5, Shimabara, Japan, 2007 Star SL, Griesemer JR (1989) Institutional ecology, translations' and boundary objects: amateurs and professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39. Soc Stud Sci 19(3):387–420 Parker J, Crona B (2012) On being all things to all people: boundary organizations and the contemporary research university. Soc Stud Sci 42(2):262–289 Potter SH (2014) Communicating the status of volcanic activity in New Zealand, with specific application to caldera unrest: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Emergency Management at Massey University, Wellington. Massey University, New Zealand

Our Role

Bailey RA, USGS (1983) The volcano hazards program: objectives and long-range plans. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston Guston DH (2001) Boundary organizations in environmental policy and science: an introduction. Sci Technol Hum Values 26(4):399–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/016224390102600401 David PA, Greenstein S (1990) The economics of compatibility standards: an introduction to recent research. Econ Innov New Technol 1:3–41

Since the turn of the century, increasing standardisation across national VALS has occurred, facilitating national adaptations to better fit volcanism type and national emergency management protocols. The growing number of nationally adopted VALS is illustrated, for example, by the 2006 standardisation of USGS VALS, in which three different VALS were replaced by the standard VALS now used at all five volcano observatories (Fearnley 2011). Similarly, until recently, New Zealand operated two systems: one designed for the hazards expected at frequently active cone volcanoes and another for reawakening volcanoes. Both were based on numbered levels (from 0 to 5) (GNS 2010). In 2014, however, these were revised into a single VALS for ground-based hazards (Potter et al. 2017). Many observatories continue to deal with more than one VALS during a crisis. Both the US and New Zealand alert levels are decided by the current activity of a volcano; they do not provide action or advice to users for mitigative action. In contrast, the Japanese VALS states the measures to be taken by specifying areas of danger, indicating the extent of evacuation and outlining expected volcanic activity (Japan Meteorological Agency 2010). In Indonesia, the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) uses VALS to outline the potential impact of the volcanic behaviour on surrounding communities, integrate capacity building in communities and assist in the implementation of actions during volcanic eruptions according to alert level (Andreastuti et al. 2017). Montserrat Volcano Observatory has designed an VALS whereby certain designated zones on the island are assigned an alert level that determines access restrictions to those zones. These examples demonstrate the diversity in the style, design and use of VALS to cater for the particularly requirements of each observatory; in the case of Monserrat, the need to make sure people move to safe zones or avoid dangerous ones (Donovan and Oppenheimer 2015; Donovan et al. 2012). VALS used in developing countries are more likely to provide advice on mitigative action or evacuations to civil authorities and emergency managers. The many factors involved in designing a VALS include what information is provided, whether actions are recommended, the style of warning (actual or forecast) and the number of VALS used. Different countries may also offer differing capacities for decision-making in response to volcanic activity, moving from an extreme end-member where the alert level de facto establishes actions, through to the public authorities making the decision in isolation from the scientists. UN. Office of the Disaster Relief Co-ordinator (UNDRO) (1985) Volcanic emergency management. New York Donovan AR, Oppenheimer C, Bravo M (2012) Contested boundaries: delineating the “safe zone” on Montserrat. Appl Geogr 35(1–2):508–514 Metzger P, D’Ercole R, Sierra A (1999) Political and scientific uncertainties in volcanic risk management: the yellow alert in Quito in October 1998. GeoJournal 49:213–221 Both studies also bring scientists closer solving the mystery of volcanic lighting. "It's surprising that there are really different processes inside a volcanic eruption plume system that generate electrification," van Eaton said. "It opens a world of questions that we didn't even know existed."

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These volcanoes erupt so explosively that little material builds up near the vent. Eruptions partly or entirely empty the underlying magma chamber which leaves the region around the vent unsupported, causing it to sink or collapse under its own weight. The resulting basin-shaped depression is roughly circular and is usually several kilometres or more in diameter. The lava erupted from caldera volcanoes is very viscous and generally the coolest with temperatures ranging from 650 °C to 800 °C and is called rhyolitic magma. Although caldera volcanoes are rare, they are the most dangerous. Volcanic hazards from this type of eruption include widespread ash fall, large pyroclastic density currents (avalanches of tephra) and tsunami from caldera collapse. Albania, Andorra, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar, Greenland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Norway, San Marino, Serbia, Switzerland, Turkey, Vatican City Donovan AR, Oppenheimer C (2015) Modelling risk and risking models: the diffusive boundary between science and policy in volcanic risk management. Geoforum 58:153–165 Shield volcanoes have a broad, flattened dome-like shape created by layers of hot and runny lava flowing over its surface and cooling. When magma is very hot and runny, gases can escape easily. Eruptions of this type of magma are gentle, with large amounts of magma reaching the surface to form vast lava flows. Small changes in the shape of a volcano such as bulging may indicate that magma is rising. Accurately measuring the summit and slopes of a volcano is one of the most important tools used for forecasting an eruption. Temperature changes in surface lakes or the groundwater near a volcano also can be a valuable early detection tool, although not all large changes in temperature are related to volcanic eruptions.